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E1

Which of the following is an ontological question?

1. Does the state exist as an

objective reality independent of human perception, or is it

fundamentally constructed

through human meaning-making and interpretation?

2. To what extent can the findings from western countries be

generalized to developing world settings given the differences of history and geography?

3. What statistical techniques are most appropriate for analysing data from complex longitudinal studies with missing

observations and nested hierarchical structures?

4. How can researchers ensure that their personal biases and preconceptions do not unduly influence the interpretation of qualitative interview data?

Option 1 poses a fundamental ontological question about the nature of reality itself - specifically whether the state exists

independently of human minds

(realism/objectivism) or is constructed through human interpretation

(constructivism/idealism). This represents a classic ontological concern about what exists and the fundamental nature of being. The

other options address different aspects of

research: Option 2 raises an epistemological question about the transferability of

knowledge across contexts. Option 3

addresses a methodological question about analytical techniques. Option 4 concerns

methodological reflexivity and validity in

qualitative research. Ontological questions

specifically address the nature of reality and existence - what entities exist, how they exist, what categories of being are fundamental,

whether reality is mind-independent or mind- dependent, and the relationships between

different types of entities. These foundational

assumptions about reality shape both

epistemological positions and methodological choices in research.

E2

Should quantitative and qualitative

methods be combined when designing research?

1. No, because the different

epistemological assumptions underlying quantitative and

qualitative approaches create irreconcilable philosophical

contradictions in research design

2. Yes, because combining

methods always produces more robust findings than using either approach alone, regardless of

the research question

3. Yes,when the research question requires both breadth and depth of understanding, and the

methods are integrated in ways that acknowledge their distinct contributions while maintaining philosophical coherence

4. Yes, but only when qualitative methods are used in a

preliminary phase to generate hypotheses that can then be tested quantitatively

Option 3 correctly captures the nuanced position that mixed methods can be

appropriate, but their combination must be justified by the research questions and

implemented thoughtfully. The other options represent common misconceptions: Option 1 takes an overly rigid stance. Option B makes an unsupported universal claim about the

superiority of mixed methods, when some research questions are better addressed through a single approach. Option 4

incorrectly relegates qualitative methods to a preliminary role, ignoring their potential for

explanation, triangulation, or expansion of quantitative findings. The key is that

methodological choices should be driven by research questions and purposes, with mixed

methods employed when their integration adds value and can be philosophically

justified.